Scorching summers intensify caste barriers to water in India's Bundelkhand

A few months ago, shortly after sunrise, 40-year-old Mamta set out on the first of up to 10 trips she would make that day to collect water. 

Carrying three empty plastic buckets, she walked several hundred metres to the nearest handpump in her village in Jalaun district, part of the drought-prone Bundelkhand region of northern India. Temperatures in parts of the region were already climbing above 40°C, reports the BBC.

Mamta said taps installed under a government drinking water scheme had remained dry for two years, leaving around 1,000 villagers dependent on a small number of handpumps. 

It took her hours to collect enough water for her family of 11 and their livestock. But the heat was not her only challenge. 

Mamta is from the Valmiki community, a Dalit group that was historically considered "untouchable" under India's caste system and continues to face discrimination. 

She said she waited for members of dominant castes to finish using the handpump before collecting water herself. 

"If they are standing there, we cannot fill water. We have to wait until they leave," she said. 

She also said some upper-caste residents poured water over the pump afterwards to "cleanse" it, adding that the practice had continued for decades. 

Bundelkhand

Bundelkhand, a semi-arid region covering districts in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, is known for severe water scarcity. The region experienced several major droughts between 2002 and 2016. 

Its rocky plateau has limited capacity to retain groundwater, while unpredictable rainfall and rising temperatures have made water access increasingly uncertain despite government and community conservation efforts. 

A study examining more than a century of weather records found temperatures had increased across almost the entire region. In recent summers, temperatures in parts of Bundelkhand have approached 48°C. 

Residents and researchers say the worsening heat and water stress are intensifying long-standing caste divisions. 

As more families compete for increasingly scarce water, Dalits, who have historically faced restrictions in accessing water, are encountering such inequalities more frequently. 

"Conflict over water is not new," said Mitashi Singh of the Centre for Science and Environment. What is changing, she said, is how hotter summers are making water scarcer and aggravating existing tensions. 

Local officials reject allegations of water shortages and caste discrimination at public water sources. 

Dominant-caste residents interviewed by the BBC also denied discriminating against others, though they acknowledged growing pressure on water supplies. 

Ram Gopal Singh, in his 50s, pointed to several abandoned village wells, saying they had been dry for nearly 20 years. Other water sources had either dried up or become polluted, while unreliable tap connections had driven more families towards handpumps, he added.

According to Singh, everyone tries to collect water during cooler morning hours, resulting in disputes over turns and the amount each family could collect. But he denied that caste is a factor in these disputes. 

Dalit residents, however, described a different situation. 

They said there is no formal queue at the handpumps and that families instead try to collect water at different times to avoid confrontations. 

Mamta said she usually goes very early in the morning or late in the afternoon because she fears being targeted. 

About 50km away in Shahjahanpur, Shiv said members of his community similarly avoid approaching a handpump while dominant-caste families are using it. 

"No matter how hot it is, even if we have to wait for hours for one bucket of drinking water, we wait because we do not have a choice."

His mother, Parmi Devi, alleged that she was assaulted three years ago after an argument with a dominant-caste resident at a village handpump. 

Devi filed a police complaint, but no arrests have been made. 

The Dalit Dignity and Justice Centre, a non-profit in Uttar Pradesh, said police registered 113 cases under India's law against caste-based atrocities in the area in 2025. 

The organisation said most complaints it tracked during May and June involved water, though it has not published a detailed breakdown. 

District Magistrate Rajesh Kumar Pandey's office rejected the allegations, saying there is no instance of caste discrimination over water access. 

Efforts to address water shortages include the government's Jal Jeevan Mission, restoration of ponds and groundwater recharge initiatives. Traditional water bodies have also been revived, while women-led Jal Saheli groups monitor supplies and promote conservation. 

Researcher Mukul Sharma said increasing water supplies alone will not resolve the problem.

Climate change, he said, is "not the origin of these injustices, but a threat multiplier."

Unless caste inequalities over water access are addressed, he said, more water will not solve the problem.